3 Stages of the Memory Process

encoding-memory

AnnaMarie Houlis

Memory is not just about how well or poorly you recall a specific memory in your childhood or something as simple as where you left your keys. It’s a complex yet fascinating 

system.

Your memory contains a vast collection of information, including a treasure trove of experiences, emotions and knowledge that consciously or subconsciously shapes your identity and decisions.

Over the past 50 years, tons of studies have been conducted to understand how our memories are formed and how they function.

So let’s break down the different stages of the memory process.

1. Encoding

Imagine your brain as a sophisticated computer. Encoding is the initial and arguably the most crucial stage of the memory process.

It’s a way of taking screenshots of the world around us. But since we are bombarded with countless pieces of information, the brain has to be selective. It transforms these “screenshots’” into formats it can store.

Not everything makes the cut; the brain prioritizes information based on its relevance, often influenced by our emotions and focus.

2. Recoding 

Recoding is an advanced form of encoding. It’s the process of reorganizing or restructuring already encoded information to make it easier to grasp and retrieve later.

Say you’re trying to remember a long string of numbers, like 1876649089. It’s a lot easier if you break it down into chunks, like 187-664-9089, right? That’s how recoding works. It’s basically about taking large or complex bits of information and making them more digestible. In a sense, this is the fundamental tenet of what makes Morse code so powerful

3. Storage

Once information is encoded and recoded, it progresses to the storage phase.

Contrary to earlier beliefs that a single memory was stored in just one region of the brain, recent studies by scientists at The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory at MIT suggest that memories are distributed across various areas of the brain.

Information first enters our short-term memory (STM), a temporary holding zone. Based on the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, STM typically lasts for just 15 to 30 seconds. However, STM has its limitations. In a 1956 study, George Miller proposed that STM can hold an average of about seven items (give or take two) for a short duration.

Without reinforcement, these memories are prone to fading. Those that persist transition to your long-term memory (LTM), a vast storage area with an almost unlimited capacity.

4. Retrieval

Retrieval refers to the act of accessing stored memories.

While your STM relies on direct recall, your LTM uses recognition, a process triggered by familiar cues.

However, retrieval isn’t foolproof. Ever had that “it’s on the tip of my tongue” moment? That’s a hiccup in the retrieval process, influenced by various factors like the strength of the original memory or the presence of cues.

The Role of Encoding in Memory

Encoding is the core of our memory system. Without effective encoding, the next stages of storage and retrieval become challenging.

Just as a house requires a solid foundation to remain stable, our memories depend on robust encoding. Without this basic step, memories can become fleeting or even disappear completely.

Encoding Research History

The study of encoding isn’t new. In the late 19th century, Hermann Ebbinghaus was one of the pioneers in scientifically exploring memory.

Ebbinghaus’ work with nonsense syllables led to the development of the “forgetting curve,” which shows how memories fade over time and highlights how essential encoding is in keeping our memories intact. He was among the first to start laying the land for understanding our memory altogether.

Types of Encoding

Memory encoding is not a one-size-fits-all process.

Instead, the brain uses various methods to transform sensory information into memorable forms.

Here are the different types of encoding that play a critical role in how we process and store information:

Visual Encoding

This involves remembering visuals—the color of a dress or the shape of a cloud.

Acoustic Encoding

Here, we remember things based on their sound, like repeating the lyrics of a song. 

Semantic Encoding

This is our brain’s library for facts. It’s why we know that Paris is the capital of France or that water boils at 212°F.

Elaborative Encoding

This involves linking new information with existing memories. Meeting someone named ‘Rose’ at a garden brunch might make her name easier to remember.

Tactile Encoding

This captures memories from our senses like recalling how warm a cup felt in your hands or the unique smell of your favorite cafe.

Organizational Encoding

Organizational encoding is about grouping information. When learning a language, categorizing and grouping vocabulary words like “fruits” or “vehicles” can be helpful.

Conditions That Can Affect Memory Encoding

Memory encoding can be influenced by various factors. While many associate memory issues primarily with conditions like Dementia or Alzheimer’s, younger individuals often face challenges specifically during the encoding stage.

Below are some common factors that can make memory encoding harder.

Mental Health Disorders

Your mood can affect our memory, too. When you’re depressed, anxious or stressed out, your body produces more cortisol, which is a hormone that can interfere with your ability to focus and recall information.

Sleep Issues

Lack of sleep or conditions like sleep apnea can negatively impact your memory encoding. REM (rapid eye movement) sleep plays a big role in memory formation.

During REM sleep, your brain actively organizes and strengthens new memories, integrating them with existing knowledge. The National Sleep Foundation has discussed the significance of sleep for cognitive functions, including memory.

Busy Lifestyle

An overly hectic schedule or constant multitasking can reduce your ability to focus and encode memories effectively. When you’re always trying to do multiple things at once, your brain may struggle to give each task the focus it needs, making it harder to form lasting memories.

Physical Health

Our overall physical well-being plays a role in memory function. Certain conditions can directly impact the brain’s ability to form new memories. For instance, a head injury might damage the hippocampus, a vital region for memory formation and retrieval.

Other conditions like hypothyroidism can slow cognitive processes, while a vitamin B12 deficiency can lead to memory disturbances. 

Medications

Some medications can have side effects on your memory, especially if you use them for a long time or in high doses. For example, some drugs for anxiety, sleep, allergies, colds, high blood pressure and more can increase the risk of Dementia or memory problems. Harvard Health warns that these drugs can have potential long-term risks to your memory especially when used extensively.


Environmental Factors

A distracting environment can hinder effective encoding. When your surroundings are chaotic or your attention is divided, the chances of effectively processing and retaining information decrease.

For example, studying in a quiet library might be better than studying in a crowded cafe. It’s important to be aware of how your environment influences your ability to encode memories effectively.

Substance Use

Consuming excessive amounts of alcohol or drugs can negatively affect your memory. Heavy alcohol consumption in particular can interfere with the brain’s ability to form new long-term memories. This phenomenon is known as  “alcohol-induced blackout.” During these blackouts, you might even act how you normally do, but you might have no memory of your actions.

Aging

As you get older, your brain naturally changes, and one of those changes is in how you form new memories. While this is a natural part of the aging process, the extent of these memory changes can differ from person to person. Some might experience minor lapses while others may notice more significant differences in their memory capabilities.

False Encoding and False Memories


Sometimes, our brain tricks us into believing events or details that never happen. This can be due to suggestion, misattribution, conformity, imagination or even neurological factors.

False encoding happens when the brain incorrectly and inaccurately logs events or details. Imagine listening to a list of words like “snow,” “cold” and “ice.” Later, you might be convinced you also heard the word “winter” even if it wasn’t mentioned. This phenomenon is known as the DRM (Deese-Roediger-McDermott) effect

The DRM effect is our brain’s way of filling in gaps based on related concepts or expectations leading us to believe we experienced something we didn’t. In some ways, it can help you learn since you are simply making connections. But it can also lead to false memories.

How Do False Memories Form?

False memories are memories of events or details that either didn’t happen or got twisted somewhere along the way. But how do these deceptive memories form? Well, there are several factors at play.

Elizabeth Loftus’s groundbreaking work has shown how memories can be influenced or even implanted, especially relevant in legal contexts.

A notable case highlighting the fragility of memory is that of Guðmundur and Geirfinnur from the 1970s in Iceland. Six people confessed to murders after intense interrogations, believed to have been influenced by the creation of false memories.

LeB Law talks about how these memory discrepancies can seriously affect trial outcomes. When someone’s memory is a key piece of evidence, its accuracy is super important.

What’s crucial to understand is that false memories aren’t made-up stories or deliberate lies. They feel genuine to the person thinking, making it hard to tell whether it’s a real memory or not. 

How to Improve Your Memory

Memory is like a muscle – it can be strengthened with the right exercises and tools.

Here’s a guide to help you improve your memory.

Focused Attention

You need to truly absorb what you’re learning. Choose a quiet environment without distractions. The more engaged you are, the better you’ll remember.

Study Tools

Don’t cram the night before. Study in short, regular sessions for better recall. Use apps like the Dorothy Memory App. The app utilizes the principle of spaced repetition, which is a proven method for memory enhancement. 

Memory Aids

Mnemonic devices are simple yet effective tools to help remember information. For example, using “ROY G BIV” can help you to remember the sequence of rainbow colors by transforming abstract information into more relatable forms.

Deep Dives

Instead of just reading quickly, take your time to really understand the topic. Discuss it with others and even try teaching it. Explaining things to someone else helps you remember better.

Self Tests

It’s not just about reading and repeating what you study. Studies show that testing yourself on what you’ve learned is one of the top ways to boost memory.

Visual Learning

Pictures like infographics, charts and mind maps make learning fun and easier. They use colors and shapes to help your brain remember better. When you see and understand these visuals, your brain works harder and remembers more.

Making Connections

Stories stick in our minds because they connect ideas. When you learn something new, link it to something you already know. This “bridge” makes it easier to remember.

Say It Loud

Reading materials out loud can significantly boost memory retention. Research shows that people often remember things more clearly when they’ve heard themselves say it out loud.

Rest

Sleep is more than just rest for your body; it’s crucial for your brain, too. Studies have shown that sleeping or even taking a nap after learning can boost your memory and speed up learning. Researchers have even found that sleep can even cause physical changes in the brain

Challenge the Brain

Having trouble remembering something? Spend more time on it. Pushing through tough topics can actually help you remember them better.

Mix it Up

Just like how changing your workout routine can be good for your body, trying different things while studying can benefit your brain. For example, switching the places where you study, changing the subjects or studying at different times of the day. You can learn more about this technique, which we call interleaving, in Dorothy’s resource center.

Human memory is like a big puzzle, shaping our identities and experiences. While it can sometimes be a bit fuzzy and unreliable (especially when we’re tired, feeling down or as we get older) we can enhance the memory by applying the right strategies.

Interested in Dorothy? Sign up today to start studying less and remembering more.